matrix or a bipartite network for computational approaches, which can affect the

prediction performance (Le and Nguyen-Ngoc 2018).

Integration of one or more repositioning approaches is required to meticulously

manoeuvre the heterogeneous amount of available data into an incorporated

workflow. More importantly, the new integration methods must be able to extend

its domain of applicability. Indeed, it is generally recognized that computational

techniques offer a more systematic repositioned plan and indubitably, a cost-

effective means to discover new interactions between drugs and diseases compared

to conventional approaches like in-lab experimental techniques. Nonetheless, in

scientific research, the outcomes from computational approaches will subsequently

always entail proper validation using experimental work to strengthen the findings.

5.5

New Horizons of DR

5.5.1

Neglected Conditions and Orphan Diseases

Indeed, DR has brought into spotlight the rare pathophysiological conditions/

diseases (e.g. orphan disease), which are often poorly characterized and receive

less attention from pharmaceutical companies to develop drug treatments. This is

because only a small grant or budget is allocated in mainly developing countries to

create new or repositioned drugs to combat the disease. According to the World

Health Organization (WHO), an orphan disease is defined as the prevalence of an

illness being less than 6.5–10 in 10,000 people (Aronson 2006). These types of

disorders have recently gained more attention and interest, since there are now

several orphan drugs available in the market such as haem arginate (for por-

phyria—acute intermittent, variegate, and hereditary), ibuprofen (for patent ductus

arteriosus in neonates), and N-acetylcysteine (for paracetamol poisoning) (Hift and

Meissner 2005).

Although there are approximately 8000 existing orphan diseases (Statista 2021),

increasing numbers of pharmaceutical industries are taking the initiative to formulate

repositioned drugs as compared to a decade ago, where there was only around 5% of

participation (Sardana et al. 2011). This is because of the latest development of

technologies (e.g. computational approaches) and the offered incentives and assis-

tance provided under the Orphan Drug Act (ODA) 1983. To encourage and ease the

burden of pharmaceutical and research organizations, the ODA 1983 has outlined

some benefits, including the following: (1) tax credits, (2) financial aids for research,

(3) fastening the marketing authorization process, and (4) marketing exclusivity

(Lavandeira 2002).

5.5.2

Personalized Medicine

Personalized medicine aims to improve the treatment course of some disorders by

utilizing genomic findings to integrate biomedical research and clinical medicine.

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